Kinship notes:
What is Kinship? The relationships found in all societies that are based on blood or marriage.
Blood relatives (birth relatives) consanguineal
Marital relatives – affinal
Every society defines the importance of these relatives to the individual –
- which kin are more socially important
- terms used to classify kin
- expected forms of behavior between the individual and relatives
including recognized obligations and rights between them
Sometimes kinship terms are used for people unrelated by marriage or birth
this is called fictive kinship
adoption – with all the expectations of relationships of descent and marriage
close friends of family called aunt or uncle even though no
actual birth or marriage tie exists
college fraternities/sororities
godparents
African-American use of the terms brother and sister
It is possible that these relationships may be completely kinship-like in their structure, including recognized obligations and rights between parties without
the birth/marriage tie
In the US the biological meaning of kinship is very powerful and governs issues of custody and responsibility for children – genetic relationships are key
In Ecuador the Zumbagua’s definition of parenthood is more socially based and earned over a period of time through the nurturing of a child. Biological parents have a very weak claim on children, instead those who raise the child are considered the parents.
Some South American aboriginal cultures believe in “partiable parternity” meaning that all men who had sex with the mother of a child during pregnancy had some part in the formation of the child – at birth mom names these men and they all have a socially structured responsibility for the child.
Multiple fathers insures that the child will have many providers, in a study of ethe Bari society statistically 80% of multiple fathered children reached adulthood while only 64% of children with only one father did
KINSHIP DESIGNATORS
Every culture has it own ways of referring to kin. – in ours a mother’s brother and a father’s brother are both called uncle. In some societies these people would be referred to by different terms and have differently proscribed relationships with us.
these are more cultural than biological.
FUNCTIONS OF KINSHIP SYSTEMS
Kinship systems serve 2 important functions for the well-being of the total society
vertical function – social continuity through binding of successive generations
involves the passing of education, tradition, property, and sometimes political power
horizontal function – social continuity across a generation through marriage
kinship defines acceptable spouses within a society
can promote alliances with other groups outside the kinship group
can promote solidarity through the society — King marries a wife from every non-royal lineage within the country, assures himself allies (Sobhuza II of Swaziland – ½ million people) and societal
solidarity
KINSHIP DIAGRAMS
generational – mothers, fathers, aunts & uncles – generation before EGO
grands – before them
nieces, nephews, sons, daughters – after EGO
not all societies use the generational distinction – relationship to EGO may determine terms used, — Haida – father’s sister, father’s sister’s daughter and her daughter are all referred to by the same term
sex or gender – we classify all our relationships according to gender except for cousins – not always the case
lineality – son, father, grandfather
collaterally – kin related through a linking relative, in some cases referred to by the same terms as the relative eg: mother’s sisters may also be mother
consanguineal vs. affinal kin – we do not distinguish
relative age – in some kinship systems age is a separating criteria and defines relationships/behavioral expectations
sex of the connecting relative — cross and parallel cousins M/Z/D is parallel, M/B/D is cross
social condition – married uncles may be called one thing, single uncles something different OR depending on living or dead
side of the family – some societies have altogether different terms for different sides of the family
KINSHIP SYSTEMS/DESCENT GROUPS
Unilineal descent – 60% of the world’s societies are unilineal
appeal to anthropologists because they are clear cut and unambiguous social units. You’re born into
them, and that’s that. No questions about your
status, rights of inheritance, social role etc.
Patrilineal descent – (the most common) follows the male line –
a man, his children, his brother’s children (not sister’s tho – she must marry outside her patrilinage
and her kids belong to hubby’s group)
EX: Pre-1949 China – patrilineal and patrilocal
Matrilineal descent – 15% of unilineal descent groups
men retain the lion’s share of power but it is passed through their mother’s family – his sister’s son or
a mother’s brother is the most important male relation a man has in these societies
EX: Zuni – matrilineal and matrilocal –
13 matrilineal clans each with several lineages
Women of the same matrilineal group own and occupy the household, care for the sacred objects and married brothers return home to participate in the ritual life of their mother’s home. Husbands
have economic but no ritual responsibilities within
their wives’ home – they return to their own lineage
home for their own family rituals.
Zuni women always have a desirable home. Zuni men are anxious to marry and get out of their own home, considered an undignified situation. Divorced or unmarried Zuni men return to their mother’s home.
Types of unilineal descent groups –
lineages – descent group that traces its ancestry back to a common founder (10 generations) – tightly defined
clans – a unilineal descent group whose members believe they are all related to a common ancestor – matrilineal or patrilineal
descent – clans are larger and more loosely structured than
lineages, usually associated with a plant or animal or other totem that is the focal point for the group
phratries – unilineal descent groups of two or more clans, occasionally these are socially or politically significant in a society (Aztecs) but they are not common, and if found usually have no larger social significance
moities — A society that is divided into two unilineal descent groups is said to have moities – and may be interactive in social situations. Seating at ceremonies or sporting events, among the Seneca—each provides the mourning ritual for the other
- not a politically significant division, where it is found, usually only social
Corporate nature of descent groups –
- people define themselves first as members of a unilineal descent group – no change in status over time.
- group regulate marriage to the extent that the group where kin must approve
- property (land and livestock) usually regulated by the group – allocation depends on status in the group
- criminal wrongs are a slight against and a responsibility of the entire group
Descent groups provide strong bonds of obligation among members, and security and protection. Help during famine, other troubles. Strength of bonds depends on closeness of ties – lineages more than clans more than phratries more than moeties.
COGNATIC/NON-UNILINEAL DESCENT GROUPS
40% of the world’s societies
3 types – double descent
ambilineal descent
bilateral descent
Double descent (5%) – patrilineal for some purposes, matrilineal for others – Yako of Nigeria – small moveable property (livestock, produce, household goods) comes from the mother’s side, large property (land, trees, forest products, membership in men’s associations) from dad’s – mom’s side provides domestic support, and maticlan mates are honor bound to support one another and remain on good terms.
the division is between social spheres, and each side is important within its appropriate sphere
ambinlineal descent – parents pick affiliation for child or individual picks, but can only belong to one group at a time, or may be able to overlap – these groups tend to have little cohesiveness and loyalty between members
bilateral descent — (us) a system where a child belongs to both sides equally – generally relatives on both sides are treated equally – usually include close kin from a small number of generations.
the group is known as the “kindred” a number of closely related relatives connected through both parents to one living relative or to EGO – not really a group in the unilineal sense but more like a network of relatives. Not usually involved in joint ownership of property, regulation of marriage or common economic activities, or as obligated to mutual assistance as unilineal groups.
KINSHIP IN THE MODERN WORLD – where the systems break down….or must change
Issues – immigration/mobility of populations
poverty and infant mortality levels, lessening of social stability, in industrialized areas
reproductive technologies as affecting kinship definitions